Information about the Types of Woodpeckers with Pictures

Woodpeckers are known for their peculiar beaks and the drumming sound they make. They truly are a unique creation of mother nature. We all come across some of the common species at our feeders but did you know that there are more than 180 of them? This article gives a list of different woodpeckers with pictures so that you can identify them.
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Astonishing Facts about the Drummers!
➨ Woodpeckers are known for their drumming. They drum almost 8,000 - 12,000 times a day. This means that a woodpecker drums almost 20 times in a second.
➨ They have a small brain and a thick skull which protects them from the constant drumming. Also, they have adaptations to prevent the wood pieces from going into their eyes or nostrils.

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Woodpeckers are a part of the Picidae family, which is a group of near-passerine birds. They are found all around the globe, except in New Guinea, Madagascar, New Zealand, Australia, and the polar regions. The habitats vary, from forests to deserts and rocky areas. All the species are characterized by strong bills which are used for drilling and drumming on trees. They also have a long tongue, up to 4 inches in length. The long tongues help them in extracting insects from the wood. Their diet varies as per the species, from insects and grubs, fruits and nuts, to sap from trees. The nesting is typically done in tree cavities or holes in cactus. All woodpeckers except the piculets and wrynecks have stiffened tails which help them balance while climbing or feeding.

There are over 180 species distributed in different genera. The family also includes the sapsuckers, piculets, and wrynecks. Piculets are one of the smallest woodpeckers, but lack a strong bill and the stiff tail. The same goes with the two species of wrynecks. The wrynecks have only 2 species and are included in the subfamily named Jyngiane and the genus Jynx. The piculets belong to the subfamily Picumninae and are divided in different genera, viz, Picumnus, Verreauxia, Sasia, and Nesoctites. The woodpeckers belong to the subfamily Picinae. They are further divided into different tribes. Have a look at the different species of woodpeckers given below.
INDEX

1. Tribe: Dendropicini
2. Tribe: Malarpicini
3. Tribe: Picini
4. Tribe: Megapicini

Tribe: Dendropicini

Genus: Melanerpes

The genus name Melanerpes has its origin in Latin and means "black creeper". The members of this genus are all found in the New World.

White woodpecker
Red-headed woodpecker


Acorn woodpecker
Hispaniolan woodpecker


Red-crowned woodpecker
Gila woodpecker


Golden-fronted woodpecker
Red-bellied woodpecker


West Indian woodpecker

White woodpecker, Melanerpes candidus
Lewis's woodpecker, Melanerpes lewis
Guadeloupe woodpecker, Melanerpes herminieri
Puerto Rican woodpecker, Melanerpes portoricensis
Red-headed woodpecker, Melanerpes erythrocephalus
Acorn woodpecker, Melanerpes formicivorus
Yellow-tufted woodpecker, Melanerpes cruentatus
Yellow-fronted woodpecker, Melanerpes flavifrons
Golden-naped woodpecker, Melanerpes chrysauchen
Beautiful woodpecker, Melanerpes pulcher
Black-cheeked woodpecker, Melanerpes pucherani
White-fronted woodpecker, Melanerpes cactorum
Hispaniolan woodpecker, Melanerpes striatus
Jamaican woodpecker, Melanerpes radiolatus
Golden-cheeked woodpecker, Melanerpes chrysogenys
Grey-breasted woodpecker, Melanerpes hypopolius
Yucatan woodpecker, Melanerpes pygmaeus
Red-crowned woodpecker, Melanerpes rubricapillus
Gila woodpecker, Melanerpes uropygialis
Hoffmann's woodpecker, Melanerpes hoffmannii
Golden-fronted woodpecker, Melanerpes aurifrons
Velasquez's woodpecker, Melanerpes santacruzi
Red-bellied woodpecker, Melanerpes carolinus
West Indian woodpecker, Melanerpes superciliaris
Grand Bahama West Indian woodpecker, Melanerpes superciliaris bahamensis (extinct: 1950s)

Genus: Sphyrapicus - Sapsuckers

The name "Sphyrapicus" is a combination of Greek words sphura meaning 'hammer' and pikos meaning 'woodpecker'. All birds have slender bodies, stiff tails, and long wings. The birds feed on the sap of trees and the insects are fed to the young ones. They have a typical flight of alternating quick wing beats and short dips. These 4 birds are found in North America.


Red-naped sapsucker, S. nuchalis
Red-breasted sapsucker, S. ruber


Williamson's sapsucker, S. thyroideus
Yellow-bellied sapsucker, S. varius

Genus: Xiphidiopicus

Cuban Green Woodpecker, Xiphidiopicus percussus
The Cuban green woodpecker is the only species of this genus and only found in Cuba. It has the size and shape of a sapsucker. It has a bright olive-green body with yellow underparts. The males have a red crown and the females have a black crown with white stripes. This species prefers dry or lowland moist forests.

Genus: Dendropicos


Cardinal woodpecker
Bearded woodpecker

Little grey woodpecker, Dendropicos elachus
Speckle-breasted woodpecker, Dendropicos poecilolaemus
Abyssinian woodpecker, Dendropicos abyssinicus
Cardinal woodpecker, Dendropicos fuscescens
Gabon woodpecker, Dendropicos gabonensis
Stierling's woodpecker, Dendropicos stierlingi
Melancholy woodpecker, Dendropicos lugubris
Bearded woodpecker, Dendropicos namaquus
Fire-bellied woodpecker, Dendropicos pyrrhogaster
Yellow-crested woodpecker, Dendropicos xantholophus
Arabian woodpecker, Dendropicos dorae
Brown-backed woodpecker, Dendropicos obsoletus

Genus: Mesopicos

Elliot's Woodpecker, Mesopicos elliotii
Grey Woodpecker, Mesopicos goertae
Olive Woodpecker, Mesopicos griseocephalus

Genus: Dendrocopos


White-backed woodpecker
Great spotted woodpecker


Syrian woodpecker
Lesser Spotted Woodpecker


Middle Spotted Woodpecker
Japanese Pygmy Woodpecker

Brown-capped Pygmy Woodpecker, Dendrocopos nanus
Fulvous-breasted woodpecker, Dendrocopos macei
Freckle-breasted woodpecker, Dendrocopos analis
Stripe-breasted woodpecker, Dendrocopos atratus
Rufous-bellied woodpecker, Dendrocopos hyperythrus
Darjeeling woodpecker, Dendrocopos darjellensis
White-backed woodpecker, Dendrocopos leucotos
Okinawa woodpecker, Dendrocopos noguchii
Amami woodpecker, Dendrocopos owstoni
Great spotted woodpecker, Dendrocopos major
Syrian woodpecker, Dendrocopos syriacus
White-winged woodpecker, Dendrocopos leucopterus
Sind woodpecker, Dendrocopos assimilis
Himalayan woodpecker, Dendrocopos himalayensis
Lesser Spotted Woodpecker, Dendrocopos minor
Middle Spotted Woodpecker, Dendrocopos medius
Japanese Pygmy Woodpecker, Dendrocopos kizuki

Genus: Picoides

All the members of this genus are found in North America. The members have a similarity which is the plumage of black and white, and brown and white in some species. Also, most of the males have a red or yellow badge. All of them have a chisel-shaped, straight bill which helps them feed on insects, their main diet. Actually, this genus is in need of revision because there is some confusion in the three-toed species like the Eurasian and American three-toed woodpecker. The recent studies say that 6 species of this genus are shifted to a new genus Leuconotopicus.


Arizona Woodpecker
Downy Woodpecker


American Three-toed Woodpecker
Ladder-backed Woodpecker

Arizona Woodpecker, Picoides arizonae
Downy Woodpecker, Picoides pubescens
Black-backed Woodpecker, Picoides arcticus
American Three-toed Woodpecker, Picoides dorsalis
Eurasian Three-toed Woodpecker, Picoides tridactylus
Ladder-backed Woodpecker, Picoides scalaris
Hairy Woodpecker, Picoides villosus
Nuttall's Woodpecker, Picoides nuttallii
Red-cockaded Woodpecker, Picoides borealis
Strickland's Woodpecker, Picoides stricklandi
White-headed Woodpecker, Picoides albolarvatus

Genus: Veniliornis

Scarlet-backed woodpecker, Veniliornis callonotus
Yellow-vented woodpecker, Veniliornis dignus
Bar-bellied woodpecker, Veniliornis nigriceps
Little woodpecker, Veniliornis passerinus
Dot-fronted woodpecker, Veniliornis frontalis
White-spotted woodpecker, Veniliornis spilogaster
Blood-coloured woodpecker, Veniliornis sanguineus
Red-rumped woodpecker, Veniliornis kirkii
Red-stained woodpecker, Veniliornis affinis
Chocó woodpecker, Veniliornis chocoensis
Golden-collared woodpecker, Veniliornis cassini
Yellow-eared woodpecker, Veniliornis maculifrons
Striped woodpecker, Veniliornis lignarius
Checkered woodpecker, Veniliornis mixtus
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Tribe: Malarpicini

Genus: Campethera

These species are found in Africa and areas nearby.

Golden-tailed woodpecker

Fine-spotted woodpecker, Campethera punctuligera
Bennett's woodpecker, Campethera bennettii
Speckle-throated woodpecker, Campethera scriptoricauda
Nubian woodpecker, Campethera nubica
Golden-tailed woodpecker, Campethera abingoni
Mombasa woodpecker, Campethera mombassica
Knysna woodpecker, Campethera notata
Green-backed woodpecker, Campethera cailliautii
Little green woodpecker, Campethera maculosa
Tullberg's woodpecker, Campethera tullbergi
Buff-spotted woodpecker, Campethera nivosa
Brown-eared woodpecker, Campethera caroli

Genus: Geocolaptes

Ground woodpecker
Ground woodpecker (Geocolaptes olivaceus) is the only species of this genus and is one of the three ground-dwelling woodpeckers. It is found in Africa, Lesotho, and Swaziland. It prefers barren and steep areas. Its nests are drilled as tunnels in the vertical bank of water sources. It usually prefers feeding on ants, their larvae, and eggs too.

Genus: Dinopium


Common flameback
Black-rumped flameback

Olive-backed woodpecker, Dinopium rafflesii
Himalayan flameback, Dinopium shorii
Common flameback, Dinopium javanense
Spot-throated flameback, Dinopium everetti
Black-rumped flameback, Dinopium benghalense
Lesser Sri Lanka flameback, Dinopium psarodes

Genus: Meiglyptes


Buff-rumped woodpecker
Black-and-buff woodpecker

Buff-rumped woodpecker, Meiglyptes grammithorax
White-rumped woodpecker, Meiglyptes tristis
Black-and-buff woodpecker, Meiglyptes jugularis
Buff-necked woodpecker, Meiglyptes tukki

Genus: Hemicircus

(3 species; placement in Malarpicini tentative)
Grey-and-buff woodpecker, Hemicircus sordidus
Red-crested woodpecker, Hemicircus concretus
Heart-spotted woodpecker, Hemicircus canente

Genus: Micropternus

Rufous woodpecker
The Rufous woodpecker (Micropternus brachyurus) is a brown woodpecker which is found in parts of India, Nepal, Thailand, Myanmar, and other parts of Asia. It is the only species in the genus. It was formerly placed in Celeus because of the similarities but the DNA tests proved that it was totally different. It is a medium-sized bird with a brown body. It has a slightly curved bill and the males have small red patches near the eyes.
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Tribe: Picini

Genus: Picus

The species of this genus are spread all over Europe, North Africa, and Asia. These are large woodpeckers and have green upperparts. These roam around in forests and open woodlands to feed on insects like ants and termites.


Laced woodpecker
European green woodpecker


Black-headed woodpecker
Grey-headed woodpecker

Lesser yellownape, Picus chlorolophus
Crimson-winged woodpecker, Picus puniceus
Streak-breasted woodpecker, Picus viridanus
Laced woodpecker, Picus vittatus
Streak-throated woodpecker, Picus xanthopygaeus
Scaly-bellied woodpecker, Picus squamatus
Japanese green woodpecker, Picus awokera
European green woodpecker, Picus viridis
Iberian green woodpecker, Picus sharpei
Levaillant's woodpecker, Picus vaillantii
Red-collared woodpecker, Picus rabieri
Black-headed woodpecker, Picus erythropygius
Grey-headed woodpecker, Picus canus
Sumatran woodpecker, Picus dedemi
Black-naped woodpecker, Picus guerini

Genus: Mulleripicus

Ashy woodpecker, Mulleripicus fulvus
Northern sooty woodpecker, Mulleripicus funebris
Southern sooty woodpecker, Mulleripicus fuliginosus
Great slaty woodpecker, Mulleripicus pulverulentus

Genus: Dryocopus

The name Dryocopus comes from the Greek words drus meaning oak tree and kopos meaning cutter. The three species of this genus are large and powerful. These are non-migratory birds and are permanent residents in North and South America, Asia, and Europe. These are mainly black and some reds as a crest. Some also have whites, in different proportions. These feed basically on insects like the beetle larvae from the trees.


Black woodpecker

White-bellied woodpecker, Dryocopus javensis
Andaman woodpecker, Dryocopus hodgei
Black woodpecker, Dryocopus martius

Genus: Hylatomus

There are 5 species in this genus. All of them are distributed in North and South America. All the species were formerly in Dryocopus but were separated later. Also, the species dusky-winged woodpecker and lineated woodpecker were considered as the same because they had the same name Dryocopus lineatus.


Lineated woodpecker
Pileated woodpecker

Helmeted woodpecker, Hylatomus galeatus
Dusky-winged woodpecker, Hylatomus fuscipennis
Lineated woodpecker, Hylatomus lineatus
Pileated woodpecker, Hylatomus pileatus
Black-bodied woodpecker, Hylatomus schulzi


Genus: Celeus

This is a genus with many species, with different features. All of these species are spread in Central and South America. They prefer to inhabit the tropic and subtropical forests.


Cinnamon woodpecker
Blond-crested woodpecker

Cinnamon woodpecker, Celeus loricatus
Scaly-breasted woodpecker, Celeus grammicus
Waved woodpecker, Celeus undatus
Chestnut-colored woodpecker, Celeus castaneus
Chestnut woodpecker, Celeus elegans
Pale-crested woodpecker, Celeus lugubris
Blond-crested woodpecker, Celeus flavescens
Cream-colored woodpecker, Celeus flavus
Rufous-headed woodpecker, Celeus spectabilis
Kaempfer's woodpecker, Celeus (spectabilis) obrien
Ringed woodpecker, Celeus torquatus
Amazonian black-breasted woodpecker, Celeus occidentalis
Atlantic black-breasted woodpecker, Celeus tinnunculus

Genus: Piculus

Rufous-winged woodpecker, Piculus simplex
Stripe-cheeked woodpecker, Piculus callopterus
Lita woodpecker, Piculus litae
White-throated woodpecker, Piculus leucolaemus
Yellow-throated woodpecker, Piculus flavigula
Golden-green woodpecker, Piculus chrysochloros
Yellow-browed woodpecker, Piculus aurulentus

Genus: Colaptes - Flickers


Red-shafted flicker
Campo flicker


Gilded flicker

Northern flicker, Colaptes auratus
Yellow-shafted flicker, Colaptes (auratus) auratus
Caribbean flicker, Colaptes (auratus) chrysocaulosus
Guadalupe flicker, Colaptes auratus - extinct (c.1906)
Red-shafted flicker, Colaptes cafer
Guatemalan flicker, Colaptes mexicanoides
Campo flicker, Colaptes campestris
Pampas flicker, Colaptes campestroides
Gilded flicker, Colaptes chrysoides
Fernandina's flicker, Colaptes fernandinae
Bermuda flicker, Colaptes oceanicus (Extinct 17th century)
Chilean flicker, Colaptes pitius
Northern Andean flicker, Colaptes cinereicapillus
Southern Andean flicker, Colaptes rupicola


Subgenus: Chrysoptilus


Spot-breasted woodpecker

Black-necked woodpecker, Colaptes atricollis
Green-barred woodpecker, Colaptes melanochloros
Golden-breasted woodpecker, Colaptes melanolaimus
Spot-breasted woodpecker, Colaptes punctigula
Bronze-winged woodpecker, Colaptes aeruginosus
Black-crowned woodpecker Colaptes atriceps
Gray-crowned woodpecker, Colaptes auricularis
Crimson-mantled woodpecker, Colaptes rivolii
Golden-olive woodpecker, Colaptes rubiginosus
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Tribe: Megapicini

Genus: Campephilus


Magellanic woodpecker

Powerful woodpecker, Campephilus pollens
Crimson-bellied woodpecker, Campephilus haematogaster
Splendid woodpecker, Campephilus splendens
Red-necked woodpecker, Campephilus rubricollis
Robust woodpecker, Campephilus robustus
Crimson-crested woodpecker, Campephilus melanoleucos
Guayaquil woodpecker, Campephilus gayaquilensis
Pale-billed woodpecker, Campephilus guatemalensis
Cream-backed woodpecker, Campephilus leucopogon
Magellanic woodpecker, Campephilus magellanicus
Ivory-billed woodpecker, Campephilus principalis (extinct late 20th century)
Cuban ivory-billed woodpecker, Campephilus (principalis) bairdii (extinct late 20th century)
Imperial woodpecker, Campephilus imperialis (possibly extinct late 20th century)

Genus: Chrysocolaptes


Greater flameback

White-naped woodpecker, Chrysocolaptes festivus
Greater flameback, Chrysocolaptes guttacristatus
Crimson-backed flameback, Chrysocolaptes stricklandi
Javan flameback, Chrysocolaptes strictus
Luzon flameback, Chrysocolaptes haematribon
Yellow-faced flameback, Chrysocolaptes xanthocephalus
Buff-spotted flameback, Chrysocolaptes lucidus
Red-headed flameback, Chrysocolaptes erythrocephalus
Orange-backed woodpecker, Chrysocolaptes validus

Genus: Blythipicus

Maroon woodpecker, Blythipicus rubiginosus
Bay woodpecker, Blythipicus pyrrhotis

Genus: Gecinulus

Pale-headed woodpecker, Gecinulus grantia
Bamboo woodpecker, Gecinulus viridis

Genus: Sapheopipo
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Okinawa woodpecker
The Okinawa woodpecker (Dendrocopos noguchii) is the only bird of this genus. This bird is endemic to the Okinawa island in Japan. It is medium-sized and has a dark brown color and red-tipped feathers. It is currently protected in Japan because there are less than 600 woodpeckers left. It is listed as 'Critically Endangered' in the IUCN list.

A Guide to Identify Antique Glass Bottles

Well-maintained genuine antique glass bottles could fetch you a good deal. This article gives you a guide to identify antique glass bottles.
Tip to identify antique glass bottles
✦ Did You Know ✦
The earliest known use of glass vessels was by the Ancient Egyptians dating back to 1,200 BCE. Archeological evidence collected from this era contains many glass coated artifacts.
Are those allegedly antique apothecary bottles you bought at the flea market at a so-called rip off price not letting you sleep at night? Or are you rocking an Indiana Jones phase driving around town digging people's backyard looking for long lost treasures of antique bottles?
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Confusing antique bottles for cheap reproductions can be a common mistake most rookies make, but every bottle has a story to tell. Every mark, every imperfection on the body of the glistening glass bottle tell a story of the birth of that bottle. Here we tell you how to decode the age of the antique bottle you possess.

✦ Antique Glass Bottles Identification Tips✦

✦ Color

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The color of a bottle can be used as a reference to determine the age of the bottle. Dark green beer bottles were used by many brewers in the 1800s. Colors like cobalt blue was used to color bottles right from 1870s to the 1930s. Antique bottles are usually dark green, amber, or blue in color. Bold colors were rarely used, so if you find a so-called antique bottle in bright red, yellow, green, or purple, chance are that it is a poor reproduction.

✦ Side Seams

Most bottles made in the last hundred and fifty years were usually made by blowing glass into a molds of iron or wood. These molds usually consist of 2 or 3 pieces and the bottles tended to have a faint seam on them. The presence of seams might provide a rough guide to determine the age of the bottle.

No Seams
Such a bottle may be free blown, the shape may be uneven and may date before the year 1860.
If the bottle has an even shape with the seams smoothed out, it may date around the year 1900-1920.

Blow in Mold Seam
This is usually observed when the seams run from the base and end below the lip. Back in the day, the lip was usually attached manually with a lipping tool. The lip usually has a crude look as it was attached by hand. Such bottles may have been produced in between 1840-1870.

Continuous Side Seams
The seams run from the base to the top of the lip. These bottles were machine made and may belong between 1905 to 1920.

✦ Base of the Bottle - Pontil Marks

An iron was often stuck at the base of the bottles that were hand blown. When the bottle was broken off, this iron rod left a definitive mark. Most bottles with a smooth base indicate that they were made after the year 1865. Open pontilled bottles were made before the 1860s, iron pontilled bottles usually date back to the years 1845-1870. Smooth pontilled bottles were made after the 1870s.

antique bottle base type

✦ Mouth of the Bottle - Type of Lip

Flared Lip or Sheared Lip: This is common observed in hand-blown glass bottles. It results after the bottle has been cut from the blow pipe. Such lips were commonly produced between the years 1830-1850.

Applied Double Collar, Applied Round Band, or Applied Square Band: These features are also commonly observed on hand-blown bottles. The lip of such bottles appear crude and usually have an unfinished drippy bottom. Seams run under the applied lip. These lips were common on bottles produced between the years 1840-1870.

Applied Taper: The lip has straight edges that taper towards the opening. The lip usually has a crude finishing with unfinished drippy bottom. The seams usually stop just before the lip. This type of lip on bottles was seen between 1840-1870.

Applied Blob: The lip is slightly curved and appears to have a slightly thicker bottom. The seams tend to end just below the region where the lip is attached. This type of lip was common on soda, beer, and mineral water bottles. Such lip was seen between the years 1840-1870.

In Rolled Lip or Out Rolled Lip: The glass is rolled inwards to outwards and down to form the lip. An additional piece of glass is usually not attached as the lip. The finishing of these lips is usually very crude and uneven. Bottles with such lips were usually produced between the years 1840-1860.

Early Screw Cap with Ground Lip: It was present on bottles that used a screw cap. The neck ring and threads were a part of the mold. The seams usually run above the threading system. The end near the opening was usually sheared and fire polished. These types of lips were commonly seen in bottles produced between 1860-1910.

antique bottle neck and lip type

✦ Embossing

Bottles that contain numbers and letters marked at the base indicate that the bottle has been manufactured somewhere after the early 20th century. Beer bottles usually had the words "ale" or "porter" embossed on them. Most bottles before the 1950s feature embossed lettering. Alcohol bottles produced between 1933 and 1970 have the words, "Federal Law Prohibits Sale or Reuse of this Bottle" embossed on them.
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There's definitely no substitute for experience when it comes to identifying antique bottles, get an antique bottle collector to be your guru, and examine as many as bottles as you can.

Interesting Ideas for Instagram Bio

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Instagram has become one of the important social media platforms for sharing your images and showcasing your talent. Some people may even use it for promotions of their businesses. Be the reason anything, your instagram bio is the first impression you make on your to-be-followers. So, make sure you make it as attractive as possible. This article will help you out by giving some interesting and cool ideas for your bio.
Instagram bio idea
Soaking in Fame!
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More than 60 million photos are uploaded on Instagram every day, which makes it 700 photos uploaded per second.
The United States, Japan, and Brazil are the three countries with the highest user numbers.


Instagram is an online social networking service which gives a chance to share photos and videos online. You can share your talent through Instagram on various social platforms like Facebook, Twitter, Flickr, and Tumblr. It was created by Kevin Systrom and Mike Krieger in October 2010. It has a huge fan-following and had more than 300 million users till December 2014. The original app is available for Android, iPhone, iPad but there are third-party apps available for Blackberry and Nokia-Symbian. Instagram was acquired by Facebook in April 2012.

This is a fun app where you have many filters and settings you can apply to your photos. Also, there is a setting that you can keep your profile locked so that you can choose who follows you. In this feature, people can see your display picture and bio, but none of the photos you have uploaded. Hence, your bio is the first impression you're going to make on people. So if you want more fans, your bio gotta be good! One of the interesting ways is to write words that describe you, by separating with full stops or lines. E.g.: Photographer. Traveler. Creative. Blogger. Also, get your creative juices flowing and use some good emojis and emoticons for a better visual appeal.

Besides, we are here to help. Given below are some of the random and hilarious lines which are sure to attract some followers. There are some quote ideas and the last section is about how to describe yourself better.

Random Sayings for Instagram Bio

It's okay to be a glowstick; sometimes we need to break before we shine!
I don't know what's messier, my hair or my life!
Sorry there's no Instagram filter to make you look beautiful in photos.
You're never too young to dream big!
Never go back. If Cinderella went back to her shoe, she wouldn't be a princess.
Instagram is down, so you can just describe your lunch to me.
I'm bringing sexy back! (wink!)
Dreams work but only if YOU do.
Help me please, I'm terribly bored.

instagram bio idea
Oh you're a model? What's your agency, Instagram?
When I feel a little down, I put on my favorite high heels and dance.
I need a six-month holiday, twice a year.
Yea, love is cool but have you ever had chicken wings?
Stop looking for happiness in the same place you just lost it!
There may be no excuse for laziness, but I'm still looking.
Oh food, you understand me so well! Don't ever leave me please.
Being famous on Instagram is like being rich on Monopoly.
Sometimes I just want to give it all up and become a handsome billionaire.


Quotes from Famous People

elizabeth taylor quote for instagram bio

Pour yourself a drink, put on some lipstick, and pull yourself together.
― Elizabeth Taylor

I believe when life gives you lemons, you should make lemonade... and try to find someone whose life has given them vodka, and have a party.
― Ron White

Go to Heaven for the climate, Hell for the company.
― Mark Twain

If at first you don't succeed, find out if the loser gets anything.
― William Lyon Phelps

Age is something that doesn't matter, unless you are a cheese.
― Luis Bunuel

mason cooley quote for instagram bio

Cure for an obsession: get another one.
― Mason Cooley

There are lots of people who mistake their imagination for their memory.
― Josh Billings

Everything I like is either illegal, immoral, or fattening.
― Alexander Woollcott

When I eventually met Mr. Right I had no idea that his first name was Always.
― Rita Rudner

If God wanted us to bend over he'd put diamonds on the floor.
― Joan Rivers


Cool Lines to Describe Yourself

Analog at birth, digital by choice.

A Caffeine-dependent life-form.

If I could sum up my life in one line, I would die of awesomeness.

I am in search of sleep, sanity, and happiness.

My hobbies are breakfast, lunch, and dinner.

A devoted fan of great food.

For me, fashion can also mean sweatpants and messy hair.

describing yourself for instagram bio

Words cannot express my love and passion for Weekends!

Travel is my wife, and food my girlfriend!

Blogger from heart, adventure runs in my blood, and foodie by birth!

In a serious relationship with my bed, my shoes, my clothes!

I love some expensive s*** so I gotta be successful!

People are on the quest to find peace and love, I'm just interested in finding a free pizza!
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I just want to explore everything with my camera.

15 Amazing Benefits of Having an Elder Brother

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It is often said that having a brother is one of the best things in the world. He is the one who will always be there for you as a support system. Although he may both, annoy you and overprotect you, there certainly are many benefits of having an elder brother. Come, let's take a look at them, through this article.
Benefit of having an elder brother
"Sometimes being a big brother is even better than being a superhero."
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―Marc Brown

For many girls and boys, having an older brother means a lifetime of torture, pain in the neck, crazy fights, etc. Not to forget, they fill your head with numerable lies about how you were picked up from a trash can by your parents. You fight like Tom and Jerry, and like them, are always ready to chase each other around. But coming to think about it, having an elder brother has its own perks.

You always have somebody at home to spend good times with, and to plan conspiracy against your neighbor or the bad teacher at school. Your brother is always gonna be there for you during your good and bad times. Whoever has quoted that you can't be best friends with your elder brother, is wrong. You can share your thoughts, problems, and relationship queries freely with your brother, because he will never judge you. An older brother and younger sister relationship is one of the most precious relationships ever. In the upcoming sections, we have pulled up a list of how amazing it is to have an older brother. Some benefits are related to girls, some to guys, while others are meant for both.

Elder Brother Benefits

You Can Lean on Him

Brother Supporting Sister

Just like the love of a father, an older brother always loves his younger sibling unconditionally. If you are going through a bad time, and none of your friends are around, you can always lean on him. He is a comfortable shoulder to cry on. Also, he is a good listener, and will go to any extent to make you smile or feel good again.

Gifts from His Significant Other

Gifting Brother's Sister

You not only get gifts from your brother, but now since he has introduced you to his girlfriend or fiancée, you will receive extra gifts from her too. She becomes an additional member in your family, and also your partner in crime to tease your brother. Also, you will receive all the attention you can get, and she will be nice to you because you are her boyfriend's younger sister or brother.

Your Own Protector

Brother Protecting Sister

How cool it is when none of the guys or seniors would mess with you, because they know you have a brother ready to punch them back in the face. No matter where you go or who troubles you, one phone call and your savior will be present. Having an older brother means indirectly having a bodyguard.

You Always Have Company

Brother Sister Company

You never have to be worried about going for family gatherings alone; that's because you will always have your brother by your side. You always have somebody to be weird with. If it's annoying relatives or checking out beautiful girls, that moment becomes more entertaining with your brother around.

Easy to Understand Guys

Brother Sister Understanding

This is one of the major advantages for all the girls. Having an elder brother means you are at least aware about how a guy's brain works. You will understand what to expect and how to deal with them in certain situations. Also, you can learn a lot about their habits, simply by observing your brother.

Teaches You to Be Patient

Brother Sister Patience

Because you were a victim of all his pranks and tantrums, he indirectly taught you to be patient. Sometimes, we face very difficult situations in life, and past experiences helps us deal with them more tactfully.

Babysitting is Fun

Brother Babysitting Sister

It can't get any better if your brother becomes your babysitter! Think of all the fun and exciting things you both can do together. He can show you some new video game tricks, perhaps teach you how to ride. Yea, brothers might give you a weird haircut or even dress you up with cardboard pieces too.

Get Honest Feedback

Brother Advising Sister

Since he is your brother, he won't hesitate to give you brutal feedback on your clothes, looks, the guy or girl you are probably dating, etc. They can be very straightforward, but hey they don't want you to end up looking like a fool. So if you really want to know how you look, go ask your brother.

More Guy Friends

Brother Sister and Friends

Having a brother at home means having many guys coming over at your place. That means you will have many good-looking guy friends too. Plus, they won't ever be rude or mean to you, because you are their friend's baby sister or brother.

Teaches to Drink Responsibly

Brother Sister Drinking

If he is over 21 he will have the experience of how a novice drinker acts; especially when girls can't handle their drinks. He will teach you the dos and don't of drinking; maybe you will have your first drink with him only.

Night-outs and Partying

Brother Sister Partying

Having an elder brother means you can step out without worrying your parents. They will be ready to let you out at night along with your bro. So, you officially have the permission to visit nightclubs, or simply roaming around with your brother everywhere.

A Dance Partner

Brother Sister Dancing

Want to sign up for salsa but don't have any partner? Or you are sitting alone at a wedding while everybody is dancing? Don't worry, you can dance with your brother. Having a brother means you always have a partner to dance with.

Introduces You to Sports

Brother Sister Playing

If you are a huge fan of any type of sport, that means you have had many fond memories of enjoying some games with your brother. When you are small, they introduce you to the world of sports. You will never be alone to play any type of game; he always give you company whenever possible.

Helps You Financially

Brother Giving Money to Sister

If you ever run out of money, you know who you should head to. No, it's not your parents or your granny, you should go to your brother. Older brothers generally adapt to father-like roles for their younger siblings, and help them financially too. Let it be paying some bills, rent, dinner, etc.; he has it covered for you.

Saves You from Your Parent's Brunt

Brother Sister with Parents

If you do something silly that your parents will get mad at you for, your elder brother is surely gonna save your butt. He might take the blame on himself, or give some reason or the other. But he will definitely save you from being grounded.
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These are some of the many reasons why having an elder brother is the best thing ever. The relationship between siblings is like sweet-and-sour candy. You need to fight to keep the spark alive. After all, besides all the fun, your childhood is incomplete without any fights with your older brother.

56 Ancient Inventions that You Think are Modern

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Although we live in a technologically advanced era, we owe this development to our ancestors. The origin of many things we use today can be traced to olden times. Many inventions that we assume are modern, were in fact invented long years ago. This article has listed down some ancient inventions used in today's world.
Plastic surgery as ancient Egyptian invention
Ancient Romans Loved to Shop!
In 113 AD, Romans constructed Trajan's Mall which had 150 rooms divided across four floors. Romans could shop for soap, cosmetics, gold, silver, textile, and food.
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When we think about the ancient times, we think of broken houses, diseases, and disorganized societies. We imagine a life without modern amenities or advanced technology. We credit the best inventions in various fields to the Industrial revolution. But here is a surprising fact; most of the things we use today were developed thousands of years ago. For example, some Greek inventions include alarm clocks, odometers, thermometers, and maps. Given below is the list of modern inventions that are actually ancient.

Ancient Inventions Used Today

► Alarm Clock: Ancient Greek philosopher Plato was believed to have had a large water clock with an alarm signal which sounded like a water organ.

► Architecture: The earliest reference to architecture is found in De architectura, written by the Roman architect Vitruvius in 1st century AD.

► Automatic Doors: Hero of Alexandria developed the first automatic door in the first century AD.

► Astronomy: There is still a debate as to who invented astronomy first. While some say ancient Greeks, others believe that the Dogon people of Mali invented this field. It is said that the Dogon people knew a lot about Saturn's rings, Jupiter's moons, etc.

► Analog Computers: The Antikythera mechanism (oldest form of analog computers) removed from the Antikythera wreck in 1900-1901 is one of the oldest and well-preserved portable astronomical calculators. Analog computers helped foresee lunar and solar eclipses.

► Breath Mint: To solve the problem of bad breath, the ancient Egyptians came up with breath mints. They mixed various herbs with honey and made small candy-shaped pellets.

► Baghdad Battery: Also known as the Parthian battery, it is the oldest battery ever. It was probably developed in Mesopotamia under the Iranian dynasties of the Parthian or Sassanid period.

► Cataract Surgery: In the 6th century BC, Indian physician Sushruta developed a cure for cataracts. The earliest reference to a cataract surgery can be found in Hindu records as well as in the Bible.

► Central Heating: The Greeks, particularly the Minoans, discovered a brilliant way to warm their houses. They kept pipes under the floors of their houses and through these pipes, warm water would be passed. This helped to keep the room and the floor warm during the winters.

► Democratic Government: In 507 BC, ancient Greeks presented a new system of government known as Demokratia, which simply means rule by the people.

► Dentist's Drill: Dentistry can trace its roots to as far back as 7000 BC.

► Door Locks: Ancient Egyptians invented the first door lock in 4000 BC to keep their home and family safe.

►Eyeglasses: In the 1st century AD, Emperor Nero is believed to have watched gladiatorial games with the help of an emerald as a corrective lens.

► Football: Harpastum known as the ancestor of modern-day football was first played by the Roman soldiers, when they invaded Britain.

► Gunpowder: Gunpowder was invented in China. Chinese forces used gunpowder-made weapons against the Mongols.

► Geometry: In ancient Greece, Pythagoras was the one to solve the Pythagorean Theorem. He also came up with many other geometrical deductions.

► Hairstyling: The oldest reference of hair braiding is during the Paleolithic era.

► High Heel Shoes: High heel shoes were worn by medieval Europeans. High-heeled footwear has been depicted on a 9th century ceramic bowl from Persia. Ancient Persian riders wore high heel shoes.

► Hot Tub: In 2000 BC, ancient Egyptians built hot tubs for therapeutic purposes. King Phraortes of ancient Persia used a hot tub in 600 BC which had a water-filled Caldera, which was heated by placing red stones in the tub.

► Iron Smelting: There is a possibility that iron smelting was practiced first in West Africa in 1200 BC. However, some researchers claim that humans learned the process of iron smelting more than 8,000 years ago.

► International Trade: Many evidences prove that international trade was first developed between Africa and Asia.

► Ice Skates: Based on the research done by Federico Formenti and Alberto Minetti, ice skates were first developed by the Finns. They produced ice skates 5,000 years ago and they were made of animal bones.

► Julian Calendar: A reformed Roman calendar was introduced by Julius Caesar in 46 BC.

► Lenses: Austen Henry Layard unearthed a 3000-year old piece of rock crystal known as the Nimrud lens. It was unearthed at the Assyrian palace of Nimrud. Assyrians may have used this lens.

► Maps: A Greek philosopher Anaximander in 6th century BC, invented the first map.

► Makeup: Makeup was invented in ancient Egypt and Greece.

► Marathon: When the Persian army occupied Greece in 490 BC, the Greek army was dependent on runners like Pheidippides to ask for help and warn other leaders about the attack. It was believed that Pheidippides covered 280 miles in ten days. He passed away as he finished his last 26-mile trek. Greece still hosts marathons in his memory.

► Metal Coatings: Metal coatings can be traced to as far back as 2,000 years ago when artisans and craftsmen made use of an ancient technology for putting thin sheets of metal on statues and other things.

► Medicine: Hippocrates, an ancient Greek physician first developed the concept of medicine. He also wrote a document which stated ethical rules to be followed by doctors.

► Mining of Minerals: Mining of minerals started 43,000 years ago. The oldest known mine is the Lion Cave in Swaziland.

► Nanotechnology: A 1,600-year old goblet proves that Romans invented nanotechnology.

► Odometer: Somewhere around 15 BC, Vitruvius who was a Roman architect and engineer developed the odometer.

► Olympics: The tradition of hosting Olympic games started in Greece in 776 B.C. This game was devoted to the gods of Olympus. That's why only the brightest and excellent athletes could take part in it.

► Pancake: The ancient Greeks came up with a delicious recipe of pancakes.

► Perfume: A woman chemist known as Tapputi was the first one to create perfumes during the second millennium BC in Mesopotamia.

► Peer Jury: Peer Juries' opinion was used by the ancient Greek courts. They were created to decide on important cases and take an appropriate decision.

► Paper: Paper was first produced in 2nd century BC in China.

► Pen: Pens were developed by the ancient Egyptians. The earlier forms of pens were thin reed brushes or reed pens.

► Pizza: Ancient Greeks called pizza a large round pie, Plakous. Its dough was made of barley flour, wine, and water.

► Plastic Surgery: Ancient Egyptians were the first to introduce plastic surgery. A transcription of Edwin Smith Papyrus, an ancient Egyptian medical text is a proof that plastic surgery existed even in the period between 3000 BC and 2500 BC.

► Plumbing: Plumbing was originally developed during the Greek, Roman, Persian, Indian, and Chinese civilizations.

► Plywood: Plywood was first made by the ancient Egyptians around 3500 B.C.

► Rocket: The idea of creating a rocket was of the Hero Of Alexandria, but the actual rocket was produced in the 1st century by the Chinese.

► Robots: 2,400 years ago, Hero of Alexandria who was a famous mathematician and inventor created the first robot which he called Pigeon.

► Shaving: Shaving was first started by the Egyptian priests and later followed by the Greeks and Romans.

► Screw: Greek mathematician Archimedes devised a screw pump for withdrawing and raising water.

► Steam Engine: Hero of Alexandria produced the first steam engine and named it as an aeolipile.

► Showers: Before the Romans, the ancient Greeks were believed to be the first people to bathe under showers.

► Swimming Pool: The Great Bath discovered at the site of Mohenjo-Daro which is in modern-day Pakistan, was the first swimming pool. It was built during the third millennium BC.

► Soap: The production of soap dates back to 2800 BC in ancient Babylon. An excavated Babylon clay tablet has a written formula for producing soap.

► Seismoscope: Chinese inventor Zhang Heng was the first to invent a seismoscope in 132 AD.

► Sutures: Sutures have been used by ancient physicians since 4,000 years. Egyptian records prove that ancient Egyptians used linen and animal sinew to close open wounds.

► Toothbrush: The very first bristled toothbrush was discovered in China in the Tang Dynasty (619-907).
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► Theater: Ancient Greeks were behind the invention of theaters in the city state of Athens. Greek performers such as Aeschylus and Menander were the famous performers.

► Toothpaste: An ancient Egyptian manuscript, which dates back to the 4th century AD, is the living proof that Egyptians were the first to come up with the recipe for toothpaste. They squeezed mint, dried Iris flowers, rock salt, and pepper to form a powder.

► Vending Machine: An ancient Greek engineer and mathematician Hero of Alexandria invented an early vending machine in the first century AD.

After looking at the aforementioned list, you must be convinced that there are many things we consider as modern, which were actually invented in the past. All we did was to improve the already existing equipment and practices.

Social Identity Theory Explained with Everyday Examples

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A person's identity is defined by several factors, such as inherent and cultivated attributes, behavioral pattern, as well as the people he/she associates with. This article explores how the social group that one is a part of helps define our sense of self and others, as defined by the social identity theory.
Social identity theory
Through others we become ourselves.
― Lev S. Vygotsky
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Social identity relates to the perception of oneself and others based on the social groups that they belong to. It relates to how one relates to a certain social group, and how that relation determines the way the person behaves towards other individuals in the same or different social group. It relates to how one's viewpoint is influenced by the collective values of the group. The groups that one is associated with are called 'in-groups', whereas, those that the person is not associated with are called 'out-groups'. The individual perceives itself to be similar to the people of the in-group, but radically different from the people of the out-group. This inter-group behavior is explained via the social identity theory (SIT), which elucidates how the positive interaction with members of the in-group and the negative attitude towards the out-group help define the self-identity and self-esteem of the person.

Self-esteem is enhanced when the person judges the in-group members more favorably, and shows preference for them over the members of the out-group. Such judgment also confirms the person's membership within the social group, by conforming to their overall point of view. Such a biased preference for members of the in-group can be called the 'loyal member effect'. This effect, in conjunction with the SIT, is observed not only in case of children, but also in case of adults. Usually, there exists social harmony between the in-group members, as each member has similar views towards out-group members, but the coincidental or accidental friendship between one's in-group and out-group members could lead to one being socially rejected.

Social Identity Theory
This theory was formulated by Henri Tajfel and John Turner in the 1970s and '80s, as a means to explain inter-group behavior. The theory is based on Tajfel's own experiences as a Polish Jew during World War II. The experience inspired him to conduct a series of experiments designed to gauge the minimum basis on which people identified themselves as the part of a certain group, and simultaneously exhibited a bias against a different group. The results of the experiments yielded the basis for the social identity theory. This theory proposes that, individuals endeavor to enhance their own self-esteem, by modifying their perception of self-identity as well as social identity; e.g, a person wanting to be successful would associate and ingratiate himself within groups of successful people (in-group), while distancing himself from other struggling or non-successful people (out-group).

The three central aspects to this theory are as follows:

Social Categorization
It is the tendency of an individual to divide and categorize people into in-groups and out-groups. This division enhances and exaggerates the differences between the two groups, and highlights the similarities between the people of the in-group. This illusive diversification is also known as the 'category accentuation effect'. This effect acts to underestimate the differences within an in-group or out-group, but at the same time, it overestimates the differences between the two groups. For example, in case of students who do not study regularly, an out-group would be labeled as being losers or dull (studying is too hard for them), but an in-group would be labeled as naturally intelligent (studying is too easy for them), in order to explain the lack of regular studying. Here, all out-group members are assumed to be dull, while all in-group members are assumed to be intelligent, and incidentally, both assumptions tend to be drastically dissimilar to highlight the difference between the two groups.

Social Identity
It refers to the tendency of people to adopt an identity that is compatible with the views of that person's in-groups. Here, the concept of self and self-image is a moldable entity, that changes in accordance with the changes of or within the in-groups. In other words, self-identity is based on the person's membership to various social groups. This implies that, a person does not possess one concrete self-identity, but rather multiple identities, that are adopted and used based on circumstances. These multiple identities act to enhance one's self-esteem. A person may be part of different social groups according to his gender, age, family, ethnicity, race, region, education, aspirations, financial and social status, etc. Hence, that person would belong to multiple social groups simultaneously, with each group influencing a part or the whole of that individual's sense of self. For example, a 20-year old woman could possess an identity or identities related to womanhood, young adult, future maternal figure, student, adventurer, earning member of the family, etc.

Social Comparison and Positive Distinctiveness
Since self-esteem is related to social identities, one seeks multiple positive social identities. The possession of these identities leads to the generation of a comparative analysis between one's in-groups and out-groups, to firmly establish one's own superiority over other groups. This comparison enhances self-image as well as a positive social identity. This comparison between the social groups to establish one,s superiority result in a positive self-concept at the expense of the derogation of the out-group members. For example, in a school, the children of rich parents may possess monetary superiority over the other children, and establish themselves as being superior on the basis of accumulated wealth, thus reinforcing a positive view of self.

Behavior Based on the Social Identity Theory
Based on the SIT, various social phenomenon are explained as being examples of inter-group behavior. These behavior include ethnocentrism, in-group favoritism, stereotyping, and conformity.

★ In ethnocentrism, one's own ethnic origins (in-group) are believed to be far superior in comparison to other ethnicities (out-group) in all aspects. All positive features of the in-group ethnicity are attributed to the natural disposition of people of that group. On the other hand, any negative feature is explained away and chalked up to situational mishaps or accidents, i.e., blame is evaded. In the case of the out-groups, the negative features are attributed to the disposition of the people, whereas, positive features are seen as accidental anomalies.

★ In-group favoritism refers to the practice of favoring an individual belonging to one's own in-group over others belonging to one's out-groups. For example, while recruiting people for a position at a multinational company, an American manager may give preference to an American applicant over the applicants from other countries.

★ Stereotypes are used to categorizes sets of people based on an over-simplified image. It is often the result of an individual incident being applied to the whole community that the person belongs to. These stereotypes are often used to establish social superiority between groups. For example, the common stereotypes regarding cowboys and Native Americans, establishes the cowboys as being civilized and modern, while the Native Americans as being uncouth and dull. This results in the establishment of the superiority of the cowboys over the Native Americans. It is reinforced in children's role-playing games, where in a conflict between the two groups, the cowboys emerge victorious over the Native Americans.
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★ Conformity is the act of matching one's belief and value system to that of the norms of a group. It can be used to justify the negative behavior of people. The individual follows the actions of the group (conforms) in order to be seen favorably in the group, and to increase his own self-esteem within the group. In addition, the person also fears social rejection by the group, and hence does not question or go against the collective will of the group. An apt example of this is the atrocious anti-Semitic crimes committed by numerous Germans during Hitler's dictatorship. In a bid to conform to the general agenda of Hitler's army, several individuals committed heinous acts so as to be treated favorably by their fellow individuals.

Overall, numerous experiments have provided evidence in support of this theory. The theory has been able to successfully establish the role of social categorization with regard to inter-group behavior. It also satisfactorily explains the difference between self-identity and social identity, and can be applied to explain phenomenon such as conformity, stereotypes, etc. However, the scope of the theory is largely explanatory, rather than predictive. Hence, although it explains the way people form identities, social groups, and prejudices, it fails to predict the future effect of such developments.

Brief History of the Moors in Spain

Originally from the North African country of Morocco, the Moors were medieval Muslims who once ruled over areas that currently comprise Spain, Portugal, and Septimania. This article provides a brief history of the Moors in Spain.
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Example of moorish architecture
Did You Know?
Lemons, dates, saffron, peaches, oranges, sugarcane, apricots, figs, cotton, pomegranate, rice, ginger, silk, etc., were introduced by the Moors to the Iberian peninsula.
The Moors were the nomadic inhabitants of the North African continent. They invaded the Iberian peninsula in 711, defeating the Visigoths, and established their rule for almost 800 years. The Moorish empire included most of Spain and Portugal; the Moors attempted to invade France as well, but were halted by Charles Martel.

The Spanish Moors were eventually overpowered in the 15th century, but they left behind a legacy of rich culture and architecture found right across Spain and Portugal today, particularly Spain. This Buzzle post takes a brief look at the history of what happened to the Moors in Spain, their rule, cultural influence, and decline.

An Introduction

The yellow area marked in the map shown below denotes the Moorish kingdom called Al-Andalus, and included the majority of Spain, apart from certain northern areas, and more than two-thirds of Portugal, including Lisbon and Lamego.
The name 'Moor' comes from the word 'Mauretania', which, at that time, was a part of North Africa, and presently, it covers Morocco and Algeria.
The Spanish generally refer to the term 'moro', while other Latin variations include 'mor', 'moir', 'maur', and 'mouro'.
Between the 7th and 8th centuries, the Arab empire underwent a lot of changes. The Muslims fought a civil war, after which they seized the Byzantine (Eastern Roman) empire up to Bugia.
Following a series of campaigns over the next few decades, North Africa was completely in the hands of the Muslims. The Arab groups who lived in the Maghreb were then called the Moors, and they went to on to invade and capture many areas along the Mediterranean, one of which included Spain.


Map of Al-Andalus
Yellow denotes the extent of the Moorish kingdom in the Iberian peninsula

The Invasion, Reign, and Decline: Timeline

711 - 900

The Moors invaded Spain in the beginning of the 8th century. It started with the defeat of the Visigoths in the year 711 by the Muslim troops, after which they crossed the Strait of Gibraltar.
In 718, the Muslim army was defeated at Alcama, by a brave Visigoth, called Pelayo.
In the year 732, the Muslims tried to invade France as well, but were driven away by Charles Martel.
The year 750 witnessed the Christian reconquest of Glaicia.
In the year 755, Abd-er-Rahman arrived at the coast of Granada, after which Al-Andalus saw a myriad of strategic developments.
In 778, Charlemagne was defeated by the Vascons.
Abd-er-Rahman established the Mezquita in 785.
Between 791 to 845, the Moors lost a number of lands; they were captured by Alfonso II.
The Christian kingdom was set up between 870 to 898.


901 - 1000

This century saw a slight decline in the Moorish Empire; Abd al-Rahman III was defeated by the King of Leon, Ramiro II, at Simancas and Osma, between 930 to 950.
By 981, Ramiro III was defeated by Al-Mansur at Rueda.
Post 1000, the reconstruction of some of the Moorish Empire commenced. This was undertaken by Alfonso V, and went on for almost two decades.


1001 - 1195

After Al-Mansur's death, the Al-Andalus split up into smaller vassal states, and the unified rule ceased to exist.
For the three decades that followed, Sancho III took possession of the counties of Aragon, Sobrarbe, Castile, and Ribagorza.
He signed a pact with the King of Leon, Bermudo III, to possess the County of Castile.
After his death, however, Navarre was left to Garcia III, Sobrarbe and Ribagorza were left to Ramiro I, and Castile to Fernando I, respectively.
Between 1035 to 1063, the Moors of Toledo and Seville were defeated by Fernando I.
His son, Alfonso VI, united Castile and Leon, and took over Toledo as well.
Further conquests were met with resistance from the Almoravids―the Muslim nomads from the Sahara.
They arrived in 1086, destroyed Alfonso's army, and restored the power of the Moors.
The followers of the El Cid, Sancho III's knight, left Valencia.
In the year 1118, the kingdom of Sagossa was captured by the Christians, and in 1135, Alfonso VII proclaimed himself as Emperor.
However, in 1151, the Moors reestablished power―they were the Almohades, another supreme African dynasty.
The year 1195 saw the defeat of the Castilians by the Almohades.


1200 - 1492

The Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa was fought in the year 1212. The Spanish army was led by Alfonso VIII of Castile, along with Sancho VIII of Navarre and some other troops. This event marked the beginning of the end of Moorish Spain.
The conquest of Seville commenced in 1230, by Alfonso IX of Leon, who captured Merida and Badajoz.
By 1252, the Kingdom of Granada remained the sole independent Moorish kingdom. The ruler of Granada, Mohammed Ibn-Alhamar, signed a pact with Fernando III. In return for cooperating in the conquest of Muslim Seville, he would release Granada from the Muslim rule.
The period between 1252 to 1284 was the period of the 'Mudejar' revolts.
In 1340, the Battle of Rio Salado was won by Alfonso XI.
The Castilians were defeated by the Portuguese in 1385.
Between 1469 to 1490, the last Muslim rulers were plagued by internal rivalries.
In 1492, Isabel I of Castile and Fernando II of Aragon (who got married in 1469) captured Granada and unified Spain, thus freeing the nation from Moorish rule.


Cultural Influence and Noteworthy Contributions

The impact of the Moors on European culture was manifold. They brought along their religion, cuisine, architecture, language, and many other influences in Spain.

Architecture

Córdova was the cultural center of the Moorish territory in Spain, and was, by far, known as the most modern and civilized city in Europe.
The Great Mosque of Córdoba, called La Mezquita, is considered as one of the architectural wonders of the world. Its gold roof is supported by 1,000 columns of marble and porphyry, in red and white stone, and back then, was lit by thousands of brass and silver lamps.
The Moorish rulers lived in huge palaces, as opposed to most European rulers of that time who lived in dreadful conditions.
The palace of Alhambra (the red one), in Granada, is one of Spain's finest architectural wonders. It contains some of the most beautiful arches, fountains, and other brilliant, vintage décor examples of Moorish culture and architecture.


Court of La Acequia
The Court of La Acequia
Court of the Myrtles
The Court of the Myrtles

Dome of the room of two sisters
The Dome of the Two Sisters
La Mezquita
La Mezquita de Córdoba

The Alhambra Palace
The beautiful arches of the Alhambra Palace
The Lions Fountain
The Lions Fountain at the Alhambra Palace

Education

The Moors brought about a revolutionary education system in Spain, and this gradually spread to the rest of Europe.
Unbelievably, while almost 99% of the European population was illiterate, the Moors stressed on the importance of education, and made it universally available.
There were seventeen universities―primarily in Granada, Seville, Toledo, Almeria, Juen, Malaga, and Córdova. And this was at a time when Europe had merely a couple of universities.
The Moors built more than seventy public libraries that housed numerous manuscripts. In fact, Oxford University was established by scholars after taking cue from the Moorish universities.
The European Renaissance has taken root due to the fine education system by the Moors, and helped develop the continent to what it is today.


Agriculture, Cuisine, and Fashion

The Moors introduced new crops and agricultural methods.
They helped develop irrigation by channeling water supply to the fields.
They were known for their high standards of hygiene―Cordova had 900 public baths!
They brought about several changes in the cuisine and style of dining. They introduced asparagus and citrus fruits.
They introduced the concept of changing clothes according to the season, and also the fact that meals should be served in separate courses on clean tablecloths.
They introduced new fashion trends, body perfumes, and cookware.


Civilization

The streets in the city of Córdova were well-paved with sidewalks. The streets were always well-lit by lamps.
You'd be surprised to know that this development was at a time when cities like Paris and London had no street lamps or paved walks.
As the commercial and cultural capital of the Moorish empire, Córdova had population of more 500,000. It also boasted of 50 hospitals with running water, 500 mosques, 70 libraries, and 900 hundred public baths, as mentioned earlier.
The Moors were very advanced in terms of engineering concept. They ordered the construction of an aqueduct with lead pipes to channel water from the mountains to the towns.


Important Facts

◆ The astrolabe, a scientific device to measure the position of the stars and planets, was introduced to Europe by the Moors.

◆ Moorish Spain was well-developed in terms of education. It was available for everyone, and advanced subjects, like physics, chemistry, mathematics, astronomy, philosophy, and geography were taught at universities.

◆ 'Journey to Mecca', a documentary film, highlights the travels of Ibn Battuta, a Moorish explorer. He traveled from Morocco to Mecca in the 14th century for the Hajj.

◆ The Spanish language has borrowed more than 4,000 Arabic words/phrases. The words, 'alcohol', 'algebra', 'alkaline', 'influenza', 'typhoon', etc., are derived from Arabic.

◆ Paper was introduced to Europe by the Moors.

◆ China and many other Eastern countries could spread their knowledge to Europe through Arabic nations.

◆ Lisbon, in Portugal, was called 'Lashbuna' by the Moors. They ruled this place until the end of the 1100s, until they were defeated by the troops of Alfonso Henriques in the Castelo de Sao Jorge.

◆ The library at the University in Cordova housed more than six hundred thousand manuscripts.

◆ The Moors were rather advanced in hygiene and fashion trends. The notable Moor, Abu l-Hasan Ali Ibn Nafi, had immense knowledge in geography, meteorology, botanics, cosmetic, fashion, etc. He was a polymath, and was also known as Pájaro Negro (blackbird) in Spanish.

◆ Abu al-Quasim, also called the 'father of modern surgery', was a Moor who was born in Cordoba. He had a lucrative medicine practice, and he developed many innovative surgical equipment during his tenure.
Evening Dresses
The Moors ruled Spain for almost 800 years, and left their cultural imprint on various facets of the country that are relevant even today. The Spanish style of living has heavy traces of the Arabic culture. The significance of the Moorish rule was perhaps lost for a while in the golden lanes of history, but a number of organizations and simultaneous research studies have helped unearth the beautiful period once more.